Antimatter The universe is made up of matter particles (protons, neutrons, electrons etc.) All matter particles have antimatter counterparts Antimatter particles are identical to their matte...
α & β Decay Equations Alpha Decay Alpha decay is common in large, unstable nuclei with too many protons The decay involves a nucleus emitting an alpha particle and decaying into a differ...
Strong Nuclear Force In the nucleus, there are electrostatic forces between the protons due to their electric charge and gravitational forces due to their mass Comparatively, gravity is a ve...
AZX Notation A nuclide is a group of atoms containing the same number of protons and neutrons For example, 5 atoms of oxygen are all the same nuclide but are 5 separate atoms Atomic s...
Using Error Bars The uncertainty in a measurement can be shown on a graph as an error bar This bar is drawn above and below the point (or from side to side) and shows the uncertainty in that...
Uncertainty There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty can be thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the equipment...
Orders of Magnitude A quantity is an “order of magnitude” larger than another quantity if it is about ten times larger Similarly, two orders of magnitude would be 100 times larger, or 102 &n...
Powers of Ten Physical quantities can span a huge range of values For example, the diameter of an atom is about 10–10 m (0.0000000001 m), whereas the width of a galaxy may be about 1021 m (1...
Separation of species by TLC Required practical 12: Separation of species by thin-layer chromatography This practical covers two key laboratory skills use thin-layer or paper chromatography safely ...
