【AP心理学】考前冲刺：教材Glossary（O-Z）

object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even

when not perceived. (p. 188)

observational learning learning by observing others. (p. 306)

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) a disorder characterized by

unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions),

or both. (p. 622)

occipital [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl] lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying

at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information

from the visual fields. (p. 75)

Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex according to Freud, a boy’s sexual

desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for

the rival father. (p. 574)

one-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to

2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. (p. 372)

operant behavior behavior that operates on the environment, pro-

ducing consequences. (p. 281)

operant chamber in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also

known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can

manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices

record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. (p. 290)

operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed

by a punisher. (p. 290)

operational definition a carefully worded statement of the exact pro-

cedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human

intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence

test measures. (p. 26)

opiates opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin;

depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

(p. 120)

opponent-process theory the theory that opposing retinal processes

(red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For exam-

ple, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others

are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. (p. 244)

optic nerve the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the

brain. (p. 241)

organizational psychology an I/O psychology subfield that examines

organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity

and facilitates organizational change. (p. A-2)

ostracism deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups. (p. 450)

other-race effect the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more

accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect

and the own-race bias. (p. 544)

outgroup “them”—those perceived as different or apart from our in-

group. (p. 542)

overconfidence the tendency to be more confident than correct—to

overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. (p. 361)

panic disorder an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, min-

utes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences

terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening

sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

(p. 620)

parallel processing the processing of many aspects of a problem si-

multaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing

for many functions. (pp. 96, 246, 320)

paraphilias sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involv-

ing nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or non-

consenting persons. (p. 436)

parapsychology the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP

and psychokinesis. (p. 272)

parasympathetic nervous system the division of the autonomic ner-

vous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (p. 61)

parietal [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl] lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying

at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input

for touch and body position. (p. 75)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule reinforcing a response

only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but

much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous rein-

forcement. (p. 293)

passionate love an aroused state of intense positive absorption in

another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

(p. 556)

perception the process of organizing and interpreting sensory in-

formation, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and

events. (p. 230)

perceptual adaptation in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially

displaced or even inverted visual field. (p. 254)

perceptual constancy perceiving objects as unchanging (having con-

sistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and

retinal images change. (p. 251)

perceptual set a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not

another. (p. 235)

peripheral nervous system (PNS) the sensory and motor neurons

that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the

body. (p. 60)

peripheral route persuasion occurs when people are influenced by

incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness. (p. 520)

personality an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling,

and acting. (p. 572)

personality disorders inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that

impair social functioning. (p. 649)

personality inventory a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-

disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge

a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected per-

sonality traits. (p. 589)

personnel psychology an I/O psychology subfield that focuses on

employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal,

and development. (p. A-2)

PET (positron emission tomography) scan a visual display of brain

activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while

the brain performs a given task. (p. 67)

phi phenomenon an illusion of movement created when two or more

adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. (p. 251)

phobia an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and

avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation. (p. 621)

phoneme in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. (p. 370)

pitch a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on fre-

quency. (p. 256)

pituitary gland the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under

the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth

and controls other endocrine glands. (p. 64)

placebo [pluh-SEE-bo; Latin for “I shall please”] effect experimen-

tal results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior

caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition,

which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (p. 36)

place theory in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with

the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. (p. 259)

plasticity the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood,

by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based

on experience. (p. 81)

polygraph a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that

measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspira-

tion and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying

emotion. (p. 467)

population all those in a group being studied, from which samples

may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not

refer to a country’s whole population.) (p. 32)

positive psychology the scientific study of human flourishing, with

the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that

help individuals and communities to thrive. (pp. 9, 479)

positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive

reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when pre-

sented after a response, strengthens the response. (p. 292)

posthypnotic suggestion a suggestion, made during a hypnosis ses-

sion, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized;

used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and

behaviors. (p. 265)

posttraumatic growth positive psychological changes as a result of

struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life cri-

ses. (p. 691)

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) a disorder characterized by

haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety,

numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or

more after a traumatic experience. (p. 623)

predictive validity the success with which a test predicts the behav-

ior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the corre-

lation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called

criterion-related validity.) (p. 397)

prejudice an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a

group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped

beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory ac-

tion. (p. 537)

preoperational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to

about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use lan-

guage but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of con-

crete logic. (p. 189)

primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that

satisfies a biological need. (p. 292)

primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and

external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. (p. 165)

priming the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associa-

tions, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

(pp. 231, 334)

proactive interference the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior

learning on the recall of new information. (p. 341)

problem-focused coping attempting to alleviate stress directly—by

changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

(p. 500)

projective test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that pro-

vides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s

inner dynamics. (p. 578)

prosocial behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The op-

posite of antisocial behavior. (p. 310)

prototype a mental image or best example of a category. Matching

new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sort-

ing items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to

a prototypical bird, such as a robin). (p. 356)

psychiatry a branch of medicine dealing with psychological dis-

orders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical

(for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological ther-

apy. (p. 12)

psychoactive drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and

moods. (p. 117)

psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality that attri-

butes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts.

(2) Freud’s therapeutic technique used in treating psychological

disorders. Freud believed that the patient’s free associations, resis-

tances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist’s interpreta-

tions of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the

patient to gain self-insight. (pp. 572, 658)

psychodynamic theories view personality with a focus on the uncon-

scious and the importance of childhood experiences. (p. 572)

psychodynamic therapy therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic

tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces

and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight.

(p. 660)

psychological disorder a syndrome marked by a clinically significant

disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or be-

havior. (p. 610)

psychology the science of behavior and mental processes. (p. 5)

psychoneuroimmunology the study of how psychological, neural,

and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and

resulting health. (p. 492)

psychopharmacology the study of the effects of drugs on mind and

behavior. (p. 682)

psychophysics the study of relationships between the physical char-

acteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological

experience of them. (p. 230)

psychosexual stages the childhood stages of development (oral, anal,

phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the

id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

(p. 574)

psychosurgery surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an ef-

fort to change behavior. (p. 687)

psychotherapy treatment involving psychological techniques; con-

sists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone

seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal

growth. (p. 658)

puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person be-

comes capable of reproducing. (pp. 165, 204)

punishment an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it fol-

lows. (p. 295)

pupil the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which

light enters. (p. 240)

random assignment assigning participants to experimental and con-

trol groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences be-

tween the different groups. (p. 35)

random sample a sample that fairly represents a population because

each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (p. 30)

range the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dis-

tribution. (p. 45)

recall a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve infor-

mation learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (p. 319)

reciprocal determinism the interacting influences of behavior, inter-

nal cognition, and environment. (p. 595)

reciprocity norm an expectation that people will help, not hurt,

those who have helped them. (p. 561)

recognition a measure of memory in which the person need

only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice

test. (p. 319)

reconsolidation a process in which previously stored memories, when

retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again. (p. 343)

reflex a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the

knee-jerk response. (p. 63)

refractory period (1) a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

(2) a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot

achieve another orgasm. (pp. 55, 435)

regression toward the mean the tendency for extreme or unusual

scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. (p. 33)

reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens

the behavior it follows. (p. 291)

reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired

response will be reinforced. (p. 293)

relational aggression an act of aggression (physical or verbal) in-

tended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing. (p. 162)

relative deprivation the perception that one is worse off relative to

those with whom one compares oneself. (p. 484)

relearning a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time

saved when learning material again. (p. 319)

reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as as-

sessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on

alternative forms of the test, or on retesting. (p. 397)

REM rebound the tendency for REM sleep to increase following

REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during

REM sleep). (p. 116)

REM sleep rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during

which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical

sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches)

but other body systems are active. (p. 101)

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) the application

of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimu-

late or suppress brain activity. (p. 686)

replication repeating the essence of a research study, usually with

different participants in different situations, to see whether the

basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

(p. 26)

repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism

that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feel-

ings, and memories. (pp. 343, 575)

resilience the personal strength that helps most people cope with

stress and recover from adversity and even trauma. (p. 690)

resistance in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anx-

iety-laden material. (p. 659)

respondent behavior behavior that occurs as an automatic response

to some stimulus. (p. 281)

reticular formation a nerve network that travels through the brain-

stem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling

arousal. (p. 70)

retina the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the re-

ceptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the process-

ing of visual information. (p. 240)

retinal disparity a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By compar-

ing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes

distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two

images, the closer the object. (p. 249)

retrieval the process of getting information out of memory stor-

age. (p. 320)

retroactive interference the backward-acting disruptive effect of new

learning on the recall of old information. (p. 341)

retrograde amnesia an inability to retrieve information from one’s

past. (p. 338)

reuptake a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neu-

ron. (p. 56)

rods retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary

for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.

(p. 241)

role a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining

how those in the position ought to behave. (pp. 167, 523)

Rorschach inkblot test the most widely used projective test, a set

of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify

people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the

blots. (p. 578)

rumination compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems

and their causes. (p. 635)

savant syndrome a condition in which a person otherwise limited in

mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computa-

tion or drawing. (p. 387)

scapegoat theory the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger

by providing someone to blame. (p. 542)

scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the

values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direc-

tion of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of

scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indi-

cates high correlation). (p. 32)

schema a concept or framework that organizes and interprets infor-

mation. (p. 187)

schizophrenia a psychological disorder characterized by delusions,

hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappro-

priate emotional expression. (p. 640)

secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual traits, such as

female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. (p. 165)

selective attention the focusing of conscious awareness on a particu-

lar stimulus. (p. 96)

self in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of person-

ality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions. (p. 598)

self-actualization according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psycho-

logical needs that arises after basic physical and psychological

needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill

one’s potential. (p. 583)

self-concept all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer

to the question, “Who am I?” (pp. 200, 584)

self-control the ability to control impulses and delay short-term grati-

fication for greater long-term rewards. (p. 503)

self-disclosure the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to oth-

ers. (p. 557)

self-efficacy one’s sense of competence and effectiveness. (p. 599)

self-esteem one’s feelings of high or low self-worth. (p. 599)

self-fulfilling prophecy a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

(p. 563)

self-serving bias a readiness to perceive oneself favorably. (p. 601)

sensation the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous

system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environ-

ment. (p. 230)

sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly

2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms

of their sensory impressions and motor activities. (p. 188)

sensorineural hearing loss the most common form of hearing loss,

also called nerve deafness; caused by damage to the cochlea’s recep-

tor cells or to the auditory nerves. (p. 257)

sensory adaptation diminished sensitivity as a consequence of con-

stant stimulation. (p. 234)

sensory (afferent) neurons neurons that carry incoming information

from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (p. 60)

sensory interaction the principle that one sense may influence an-

other, as when the smell of food influences its taste. (p. 270)

sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory infor-

mation in the memory system. (p. 320)

serial position effect our tendency to recall best the last (a recency

effect) and first (a primacy effect) items in a list. (p. 336)

set point the point at which your “weight thermostat” is supposedly

set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and

a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore the lost weight.

(p. 427)

sex in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by

which people define males and females. (p. 161)

sexual dysfunction a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal

or functioning. (p. 435)

sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward mem-

bers of one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex

(heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orienta-

tion). (p. 440)

sexual response cycle the four stages of sexual responding described

by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolu-

tion. (p. 435)

shallow processing encoding on a basic level based on the structure

or appearance of words. (p. 326)

shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers

guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the de-

sired behavior. (p. 291)

short-term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly,

such as the seven digits of a phone number while calling, before

the information is stored or forgotten. (p. 320)

signal detection theory a theory predicting how and when we detect

the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimula-

tion (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that

detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations,

motivation, and alertness. (p. 231)

sleep periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from uncon-

sciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hiberna-

tion. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.) (p. 100)

sleep apnea a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations

of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

(p. 111)

social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as

marriage, parenthood, and retirement. (p. 220)

social-cognitive perspective views behavior as influenced by the

interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and

their social context. (p. 594)

social exchange theory the theory that our social behavior is an ex-

change process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and mini-

mize costs. (p. 561)

social facilitation improved performance on simple or well-learned

tasks in the presence of others. (p. 532)

social identity the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our

answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

(p. 209)

social leadership group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork,

mediates conflict, and offers support. (p. A-12)

social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by ob-

serving and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. (p. 168)

social loafing the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort

when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than

when individually accountable. (p. 533)

social psychology the scientific study of how we think about, influ-

ence, and relate to one another. (p. 418)

social-responsibility norm an expectation that people will help those

needing their help. (p. 560)

social script culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situa-

tions. (pp. 150, 548)

social trap a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursu-

ing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become

caught in mutually destructive behavior. (p. 562)

somatic nervous system the division of the peripheral nervous sys-

tem that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skel-

etal nervous system. (p. 60)

somatosensory cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that reg-

isters and processes body touch and movement sensations. (p. 78)

source amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event we have

experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called

source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinforma-

tion effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (p. 346)

spacing effect the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield

better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study

or practice. (p. 325)

spermarche [sper-MAR-key] first ejaculation. (p. 166)

split brain a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s

two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus

callosum) connecting them. (p. 83)

spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extin-

guished conditioned response. (p. 285)

spotlight effect overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our

appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spot-

light shines on us). (p. 598)

SQ3R a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question,

Read, Retrieve, Review. (p. 14)

standard deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary

around the mean score. (p. 45)

standardization defining uniform testing procedures and mean-

ingful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested

group. (p. 396)

Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision (by Terman at

Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test. (p. 394)

statistical significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that

an obtained result occurred by chance. (p. 47)

stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneral-

ized) belief about a group of people. (p. 538)

stereotype threat a self-confirming concern that one will be evalu-

ated based on a negative stereotype. (p. 414)

stimulants drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful

amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that ex-

cite neural activity and speed up body functions. (p. 120)

stimulus any event or situation that evokes a response. (p. 281)

storage the process of retaining encoded information over time.

(p. 320)

stranger anxiety the fear of strangers that infants commonly display,

beginning by about 8 months of age. (p. 195)

stress the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events,

called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. (p. 488)

structuralism early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener;

used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. (p. 3)

structured interviews interview process that asks the same job-rel-

evant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on estab-

lished scales. (p. A-6)

subjective well-being self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with

life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example,

physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of

life. (p. 479)

subliminal below one’s absolute threshold for conscious aware-

ness. (p. 231)

substance use disorder continued substance craving and use despite

significant life disruption and/or physical risk. (p. 117)

superego the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents

internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the con-

science) and for future aspirations. (p. 574)

superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among

people and require their cooperation. (p. 565)

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) a pair of cell clusters in the hypo-

thalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the

SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus

modifying our feelings of sleepiness. (p. 104)

survey a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported atti-

tudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a

representative, random sample of the group. (p. 30)

sympathetic nervous system the division of the autonomic nervous

system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy. (p. 61)

synapse [SIN-aps] the junction between the axon tip of the sending neu-

ron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny

gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (p. 56)

systematic desensitization a type of exposure therapy that associates

a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-trigger-

ing stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. (p. 664)

task leadership goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, orga-

nizes work, and focuses attention on goals. (p. A-11)

telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a

telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs. (p. 372)

temperament a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and inten-

sity. (p. 140)

temporal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the

ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information pri-

marily from the opposite ear. (p. 75)

tend and befriend under stress, people (especially women) often pro-

vide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from

others (befriend). (p. 492)

teratogens (literally, “monster maker”) agents, such as chemicals and

viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal devel-

opment and cause harm. (p. 182)

terror-management theory a theory of death-related anxiety; explores

people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their

impending death. (p. 581)

testing effect enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply

rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval

practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (pp. 13, 326)

testosterone the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males

and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates

the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the de-

velopment of the male sex characteristics during puberty. (pp. 165, 433)

thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] the brain’s sensory control center, lo-

cated on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory

receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebel-

lum and medulla. (p. 70)

THC the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of

effects, including mild hallucinations. (p. 125)

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) a projective test in which peo-

ple express their inner feelings and interests through the stories

they make up about ambiguous scenes. (p. 578)

theory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that orga-

nizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (p. 26)

theory of mind people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental

states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the be-

haviors these might predict. (p. 190)

therapeutic alliance a bond of trust and mutual understanding be-

tween a therapist and client, who work together constructively to

overcome the client’s problem. (p. 679)

threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural im-

pulse. (p. 55)

token economy an operant conditioning procedure in which people

earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can

later exchange their tokens for various privileges or treats. (p. 666)

tolerance the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose

of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before

experiencing the drug’s effect. (p. 118)

top-down processing information processing guided by higher-level

mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on

our experience and expectations. (p. 230)

trait a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and

act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports. (p. 586)

transduction conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensa-

tion, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds,

and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret. (p. 230)

transference in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of

emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for

a parent). (p. 659)

transgender an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity

or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex. (p. 169)

two-factor theory the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience

emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label

the arousal. (p. 461)

two-word stage beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development

during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements. (p. 372)

Type A Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driv-

ing, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. (p. 497)

Type B Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed peo-

ple. (p. 497)

unconditional positive regard a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental at-

titude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-

awareness and self-acceptance. (pp. 584, 662)

unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning, an un-

learned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an un-

conditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). (p. 283)

unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus

that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an un-

conditioned response (UR). (p. 283)

unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable

thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary

psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware. (p. 573)

validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is sup-

posed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (p. 397)

variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement

schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time inter-

vals. (p. 294)

variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement

schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number

of responses. (p. 294)

vestibular sense the sense of body movement and position, including

the sense of balance. (p. 269)

virtual reality exposure therapy an anxiety treatment that progres-

sively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest

fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking. (p. 664)

visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants

and young animals. (p. 249)

wavelength the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the

peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short

blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. (p. 239)

Weber’s law the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stim-

uli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a

constant amount). (p. 233)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) the WAIS and its com-

panion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence

tests; contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. (p. 395)

Wernicke’s area controls language reception—a brain area involved

in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left tem-

poral lobe. (p. 376)

withdrawal the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an

addictive drug or behavior. (p. 118)

working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that

focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and

visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-

term memory. (p. 321)

X chromosome the sex chromosome found in both men and women.

Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromo-

some from each parent produces a female child. (p. 165)

Y chromosome the sex chromosome found only in males. When

paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male

child. (p. 165)

Yerkes-Dodson law the principle that performance increases with arousal

only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. (p. 422)

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory the theory that

the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensi-

tive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in

combination, can produce the perception of any color. (p. 243)

zygote the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell divi-

sion and develops into an embryo. (p. 181)