【AP心理学】考前冲刺：教材Glossary（A-F）

absolute threshold the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a

particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. (p. 231)

 

accommodation (1) in developmental psychology, adapting our current

understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (2) in sen-

sation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes

shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (p. 187, 240)

 

achievement motivation a desire for significant accomplishment; for

mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high stan-

dard. (p. 454)

 

achievement test a test designed to assess what a person has

learned. (p. 392)

 

acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links

a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neu-

tral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant

conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (p. 284)

 

action potential a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that trav-

els down an axon. (p. 54)

 

active listening empathic listening in which the listener echoes,

restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers’ client-centered ther-

apy. (p. 661)

 

acute schizophrenia (also called reactive schizophrenia) a form of

schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in re-

sponse to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recov-

ery periods. (p. 641)

 

adaptation-level phenomenon our tendency to form judgments (of

sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by

our prior experience. (p. 483)

 

addiction compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as

gambling) despite known adverse consequences. (p. 118)

 

adolescence the transition period from childhood to adulthood, ex-

tending from puberty to independence. (p. 203)

 

adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] glands a pair of endocrine glands that sit

just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and nor-

epinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (p. 64)

 

aerobic exercise sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fit-

ness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety. (p. 508)

 

affiliation need the need to build relationships and to feel part of a

group. (p. 448)

 

aggression any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm some-

one physically or emotionally. (pp. 162, 545)

 

agonist a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action. (p. 59)

 

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) a life-threatening,

sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodefi-

ciency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the

person vulnerable to infections. (p. 436)

 

alcohol use disorder (popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use

marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problem-

atic use. (p. 120)

 

algorithm a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees

solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—

but also more error-prone—use of heuristics. (p. 357)

 

all-or-none response a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-

strength response) or not firing. (p. 55)

 

alpha waves the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake

state. (p. 102)

 

altruism unselfish regard for the welfare of others. (p. 558)

 

Alzheimer’s disease a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural

plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progres-

sive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities. (p. 218)

 

amphetamines drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-

up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

(p. 121)

 

amygdala [uh-MIG-duh-la] two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in

the limbic system; linked to emotion. (p. 71)

 

androgyny displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psy-

chological characteristics. (p. 169)

 

anorexia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person (usually an

adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being sig-

nificantly underweight; sometimes accompanied by excessive ex-

ercise. (p. 651)

 

antagonist a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s ac-

tion. (p. 59)

 

anterograde amnesia an inability to form new memories. (p. 338)

 

antianxiety drugs drugs used to control anxiety and agitation. (p. 682)

 

antidepressant drugs drugs used to treat depression, anxiety dis-

orders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress

disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective se-

rotonin reuptake inhibitors—SSRIs.) (p. 683)

 

antipsychotic drugs drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other

forms of severe thought disorder. (p. 682)

 

antisocial personality disorder a personality disorder in which a per-

son (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing,

even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and

ruthless or a clever con artist. (p. 649)

 

anxiety disorders psychological disorders characterized by distress-

ing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxi-

ety. (p. 620)

 

aphasia impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere

damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s

area (impairing understanding). (p. 376)

 

applied research scientific study that aims to solve practical prob-

lems. (p. 12)

 

aptitude test a test designed to predict a person’s future perfor-

mance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. (p. 392)

 

asexual having no sexual attraction to others. (p. 433)

 

assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our exist-

ing schemas. (p. 187)

 

association areas areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved

in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in

higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking,

and speaking. (p. 79)

 

associative learning learning that certain events occur together.

The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a

response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). (p. 281)

 

attachment an emotional tie with another person; shown in young

children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing

distress on separation. (p. 195)

 

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a psychological

disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and

impulsivity. (p. 615)

 

attitude feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us

to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. (p. 520)

 

attribution theory the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by

crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. (p. 518)

 

audition the sense or act of hearing. (p. 256)

 

autism spectrum disorder (ASD) a disorder that appears in child-

hood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication

and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repeti-

tive behaviors. (p. 192)

 

automatic processing unconscious encoding of incidental informa-

tion, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned infor-

mation, such as word meanings. (p. 321)

 

autonomic [aw-tuh-NAHM-ik] nervous system (ANS) the part of the

peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles

of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division

arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (p. 60)

 

availability heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on

their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (per-

haps because of their vividness), we presume such events are com-

mon. (p. 359)

 

aversive conditioning a type of counterconditioning that associates

an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior

(such as drinking alcohol). (p. 665)

 

axon the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches

to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (p. 53)

 

babbling stage beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech de-

velopment in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds

at first unrelated to the household language. (p. 372)

 

barbiturates drugs that depress central nervous system activity, re-

ducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. (p. 120)

 

basal metabolic rate the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

(p. 427)

 

basic research pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowl-

edge base. (p. 11)

 

basic trust according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is pre-

dictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by ap-

propriate experiences with responsive caregivers. (p. 199)

 

behavior feedback effect the tendency of behavior to influence our

own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions. (p. 474)

 

behavior genetics the study of the relative power and limits of ge-

netic and environmental influences on behavior. (pp. 7, 134)

 

behavior therapy therapy that applies learning principles to the elim-

ination of unwanted behaviors. (p. 663)

 

behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should be an objective sci-

ence that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental pro-

cesses. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not

with (2). (pp. 4, 282)

 

belief perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the

basis on which they were formed has been discredited. (p. 361)

 

binge-eating disorder significant binge-eating episodes, followed by

distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or

fasting that marks bulimia nervosa. (p. 652)

 

binocular cues depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on

the use of two eyes. (p. 249)

 

biological perspective concerned with the links between biology and

behavior. Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behavior

genetics, and evolutionary psychology. These researchers may call

themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior

geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists. (p. 52)

 

biomedical therapy prescribed medications or procedures that act di-

rectly on the person’s physiology. (p. 658)

 

biopsychosocial approach an integrated approach that incorporates

biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

(p. 9)

 

bipolar disorder a disorder in which a person alternates between the

hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state

of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.) (p. 629)

 

blind spot the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating

a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there. (p. 241)

 

blindsight a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stim-

ulus without consciously experiencing it. (p. 94)

 

bottom-up processing analysis that begins with the sensory recep-

tors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

(p. 230)

 

brainstem the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning

where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is

responsible for automatic survival functions. (p. 69)

 

Broca’s area controls language expression—an area of the frontal

lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle move-

ments involved in speech. (p. 376)

 

bulimia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge

eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or

laxative use) or fasting. (p. 651)

 

bystander effect the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely

to give aid if other bystanders are present. (p. 560)

 

Cannon-Bard theory the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus

simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the sub-

jective experience of emotion. (p. 460)

 

case study a descriptive technique in which one individual or group

is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

(p. 28)

 

catharsis emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis

maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fan-

tasy) relieves aggressive urges. (p. 477)

 

central nervous system (CNS) the brain and spinal cord. (p. 60)

 

central route persuasion occurs when interested people focus on the

arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. (p. 520)

 

cerebellum [sehr-uh-BELL-um] the “little brain” at the rear of the

brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinat-

ing movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learn-

ing and memory. (p. 70)

 

cerebral [seh-REE-bruhl] cortex the intricate fabric of intercon-

nected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s

ultimate control and information-processing center. (p. 74)

 

change blindness failing to notice changes in the environment.

(p. 98)

 

chromosomes threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that

contain the genes. (p. 134)

 

chronic schizophrenia (also called process schizophrenia) a form of

schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adoles-

cence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last

longer and recovery periods shorten. (p. 641)

 

chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often oc-

curs automatically. (p. 324)

 

circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm the biological clock; regular

bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that

occur on a 24-hour cycle. (p. 100)

 

classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link

two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (p. 282)

 

client-centered therapy a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl

Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active lis-

tening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to fa-

cilitate clients’ growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.) (p. 661)

 

clinical psychology a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and

treats people with psychological disorders. (p. 12)

 

cocaine a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca

plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.

(p. 123)

 

cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh] a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner

ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve

impulses. (p. 257)

 

cochlear implant a device for converting sounds into electrical

signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes

threaded into the cochlea. (p. 259)

 

cognition all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing,

remembering, and communicating. (pp. 186, 356)

 

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) a popular integrative therapy

that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking)

with behavior therapy (changing behavior). (p. 669)

 

cognitive dissonance theory the theory that we act to reduce the

discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cogni-

tions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that

our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting

dissonance by changing our attitudes. (p. 523)

 

cognitive learning the acquisition of mental information, whether

by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

(p. 282)

 

cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one’s environ-

ment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have

learned a cognitive map of it. (p. 305)

 

cognitive neuroscience the interdisciplinary study of the brain activ-

ity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory,

and language). (pp. 5, 93)

 

cognitive therapy therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive

ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene

between events and our emotional reactions. (p. 667)

 

cohort a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as

from a given time period. (p. 400)

 

collective unconscious Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited res-

ervoir of memory traces from our species’ history. (p. 577)

 

collectivism giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s

extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accord-

ingly. (p. 157)

 

color constancy perceiving familiar objects as having consistent

color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths re-

flected by the objects. (p. 251)

 

community psychology a branch of psychology that studies how peo-

ple interact with their social environments and how social institu-

tions affect individuals and groups. (p. 12)

 

companionate love the deep affectionate attachment we feel for

those with whom our lives are intertwined. (p. 557)

 

concept a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or peo-

ple. (p. 356)

 

concrete operational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive

development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which chil-

dren gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically

about concrete events. (p. 190)

 

conditioned reinforcer a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power

through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a

secondary reinforcer. (p. 292)

 

conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, a learned re-

sponse to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

(CS). (p. 284)

 

conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally

irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned

stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

(p. 284)

 

conduction hearing loss less common form of hearing loss caused by

damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to

the cochlea. (p. 257)

 

cones retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of

the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The

cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (p. 241)

 

confirmation bias a tendency to search for information that sup-

ports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evi-

dence. (p. 357)

 

conflict a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. (p. 562)

 

conformity adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a

group standard. (p. 526)

 

confounding variable in an experiment, a factor other than the inde-

pendent variable that might produce an effect. (p. 37)

 

consciousness our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

(p. 92)

 

conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of con-

crete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume,

and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of ob-

jects. (p. 189)

 

content validity the extent to which a test samples the behavior that

is of interest. (p. 397)

 

continuous reinforcement schedule reinforcing the desired response

every time it occurs. (p. 293)

 

control group in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treat-

ment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a com-

parison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (p. 35)

 

convergent thinking narrowing the available problem solutions to de-

termine the single best solution. (p. 366)

 

coping alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral

methods. (p. 500)

 

coronary heart disease the clogging of the vessels that nourish the

heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed coun-

tries. (p. 496)

 

corpus callosum [KOR-pus kah-LOW-sum] the large band of neural

fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying mes-

sages between them. (p. 82)

 

correlation a measure of the extent to which two factors vary to-

gether, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

(p. 32)

 

correlation coefficient a statistical index of the relationship between

two things (from -1.00 to +1.00). (p. 32)

 

counseling psychology a branch of psychology that assists people

with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage)

and in achieving greater well-being. (p. 12)

 

counterconditioning behavior therapy procedures that use classical

conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering

unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive condi-

tioning. (p. 663)

 

creativity the ability to produce new and valuable ideas. (p. 365)

 

critical period an optimal period early in the life of an organism

when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal

development. (p. 196)

 

critical thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments

and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the

source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses

conclusions. (p. 24)

 

cross-sectional study a study in which people of different ages are

compared with one another. (p. 218)

 

crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal

skills; tends to increase with age. (p. 400)

 

culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and tradi-

tions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one genera-

tion to the next. (pp. 7, 155)

 

debriefing the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its

purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (p. 41)

 

deep processing encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the

words; tends to yield the best retention. (p. 326)

 

defense mechanisms in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective

methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting real-

ity. (p. 575)

 

deindividuation the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring

in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (p. 533)

 

déjà vu that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues

from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of

an earlier experience. (p. 346)

 

delta waves the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

(p. 102)

 

delusion a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may ac-

company psychotic disorders. (p. 640)

 

dendrites a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive mes-

sages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (p. 53)

 

dependent variable in an experiment, the outcome that is measured;

the variable that may change when the independent variable is ma-

nipulated. (p. 37)

 

depressants drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that re-

duce neural activity and slow body functions. (p. 119)

 

depth perception the ability to see objects in three dimensions al-

though the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional;

allows us to judge distance. (p. 249)

 

developmental psychology a branch of psychology that studies physi-

cal, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (p. 178)

 

difference threshold the minimum difference between two stim-

uli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experi-

ence the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or

jnd). (p. 232)

 

discrimination (1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability

to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do

not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) in social psychology, un-

justifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (pp.

267, 538)

 

disorder of sexual development an inherited condition that involves

unusual development of sex chromosomes and anatomy. (p. 167)

 

dissociation a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and

behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. (p. 265)

 

dissociative disorders controversial, rare disorders in which con-

scious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous

memories, thoughts, and feelings. (p. 646)

 

dissociative identity disorder (DID) a rare dissociative disorder in

which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating per-

sonalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder. (p. 647)

 

divergent thinking expanding the number of possible problem so-

lutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

(p. 366)

 

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) a complex molecule containing the ge-

netic information that makes up the chromosomes. (p. 134)

 

double-blind procedure an experimental procedure in which both

the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind)

about whether the research participants have received the treat-

ment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

(p. 36)

 

Down syndrome a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability

and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chro-

mosome 21. (p. 403)

 

dream a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing

through a sleeping person’s mind. Dreams are notable for their hal-

lucinatory imagery, discontinuities and incongruities, and for the

dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficul-

ties remembering it. (p. 112)

 

drive-reduction theory the idea that a physiological need creates an

aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy

the need. (p. 421)

 

DSM-5 the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Sta-

tistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used

system for classifying psychological disorders. (p. 613)

 

dual processing the principle that information is often simultane-

ously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

(p. 94)

 

echoic memory a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli;

if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled

within 3 or 4 seconds. (p. 323)

 

eclectic approach an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques

from various forms of therapy. (p. 658)

 

Ecstasy (MDMA) a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Pro-

duces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health

risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to

mood and cognition. (p. 124)

 

effortful processing encoding that requires attention and conscious

effort. (p. 321)

 

ego the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according

to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and real-

ity. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires

in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. (p. 574)

 

egocentrism in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty

taking another’s point of view. (p. 189)

 

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) a biomedical therapy for severely

depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through

the brain of an anesthetized patient. (p. 685)

 

electroencephalogram (EEG) an amplified recording of the waves of

electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves

are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (p. 67)

 

embodied cognition in psychological science, the influence of bodily

sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and

judgments. (p. 271)

 

embryo the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after

fertilization through the second month. (p. 181)

 

emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties,

when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have

not yet achieved full independence as adults. (p. 212)

 

emotion a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological

arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. (p. 460)

 

emotion-focused coping attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or

ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our

stress reaction. (p. 500)

 

emotional intelligence the ability to perceive, understand, manage,

and use emotions. (p. 390)

 

empirically derived test a test (such as the MMPI) developed by test-

ing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate be-

tween groups. (p. 589)

 

encoding the processing of information into the memory system—for

example, by extracting meaning. (p. 320)

 

encoding specificity principle the idea that cues and contexts spe-

cific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us

recall it. (p. 335)

 

endocrine [EN-duh-krin] system the body’s “slow” chemical com-

munication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the

bloodstream. (p. 63)

 

endorphins [en-DOR-fins] “morphine within”—natural, opiate-like

neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (p. 58)

environment every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to

the people and things around us. (p. 134)

 

epigenetics the study of environmental influences on gene expres-

sion that occur without a DNA change. (pp. 143, 612)

 

equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in pro-

portion to what they give to it. (p. 557)

 

erectile disorder inability to develop or maintain an erection due to

insufficient bloodflow to the penis. (p. 435)

 

estrogens sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater

amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex

characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels

peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. (p. 433)

 

evidence-based practice clinical decision making that integrates the

best available research with clinical expertise and patient charac-

teristics and preferences. (p. 676)

 

evolutionary psychology the study of the evolution of behavior and

the mind, using principles of natural selection. (pp. 7, 144)

 

experiment a research method in which an investigator manipulates

one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on

some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By ran-

dom assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control

other relevant factors. (p. 35)

 

experimental group in an experiment, the group exposed to the

treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

(p. 35)

 

explicit memory memory of facts and experiences that one can

consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

(p. 321)

 

exposure therapies behavioral techniques, such as systematic desen-

sitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by

exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things

they fear and avoid. (p. 664)

 

external locus of control the perception that chance or outside forces

beyond our personal control determine our fate. (p. 503)

 

extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in clas-

sical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not

follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning

when a response is no longer reinforced. (p. 285)

 

extrasensory perception (ESP) the controversial claim that percep-

tion can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clair-

voyance, and precognition. (p. 272)

 

extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive prom-

ised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. (p. 305)

 

facial feedback effect the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger

corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. (p. 474)

 

family therapy therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an

individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at,

other family members. (p. 670)

 

feature detectors nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific fea-

tures of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. (p. 245)

 

feel-good, do-good phenomenon people’s tendency to be helpful

when already in a good mood. (p. 479)

 

female orgasmic disorder distress due to infrequently or never expe-

riencing orgasm. (p. 435)

 

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) physical and cognitive abnormalities in

children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe

cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal

facial features. (p. 182)

 

fetus the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception

to birth. (p. 181)

 

figure-ground the organization of the visual field into objects (the

figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

(p. 248)

 

fixation according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking

energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were

unresolved. (p. 575)

 

fixed-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement

schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has

elapsed. (p. 294)

 

fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement sched-

ule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of re-

sponses. (p. 294)

 

flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant mo-

ment or event. (p. 331)

 

flow a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with di-

minished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal en-

gagement of one’s skills. (p. A-1)

 

fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends

to decrease during late adulthood. (p. 400)

 

fMRI (functional MRI) a technique for revealing bloodflow and,

therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI

scans show brain function as well as structure. (p. 68)

 

foot-in-the-door phenomenon the tendency for people who have

first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

(p. 521)

 

formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive de-

velopment (normally beginning about age 12) during which people

begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (p. 191)

 

fovea the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s

cones cluster. (p. 242)

 

framing the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can signifi-

cantly affect decisions and judgments. (p. 362)

 

fraternal twins (dizygotic twins) develop from separate fertilized

eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sis-

ters, but they share a prenatal environment. (p. 136)

 

free association in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the un-

conscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to

mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. (p. 573)

 

frequency the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a

given time (for example, per second). (p. 256)

 

frequency theory in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve im-

pulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of

a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal

theory.) (p. 260)

 

frontal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the fore-

head; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making

plans and judgments. (p. 75)

 

frustration-aggression principle the principle that frustration—the

blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which

can generate aggression. (p. 547)

 

functionalism early school of thought promoted by James and influ-

enced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes

function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and

flourish. (p. 3)

 

fundamental attribution error the tendency for observers, when ana-

lyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situa-

tion and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. (p. 518)