II.Measurement of Economic Performance (12–16%)
A. National income accounts 国民收入账户
1. Circular flow 循环
2. Gross domestic product 国民生产总值(GDP)
3. Components of gross domestic product 国民生产总值的构成
4. Real versus nominal gross domestic product 实际与名义GDP
B. Inflation measurement and adjustment 通货膨胀
1. Price indices 价格指数
2. Nominal and real values 名义价格与实际价格
3. Costs of inflation 通货膨胀的(社会)成本
C. Unemployment 失业
1. Definition and measurement 定义和度量指标
2. Types of unemployment 失业的类型
3. Natural rate of unemployment 自然失业率
To provide an overview of how the economy works, the course should start with a model of the circular flow of income and products that contain the four sectors: households, businesses, government and international. It is important to identify and examine the key measures of economic performance: gross domestic product, unemployment and inflation.
In studying the concept of gross domestic product, it is also important that students learn how gross domestic product is measured, have a clear understanding of its components and be able to distinguish between real and nominal gross domestic product.
The course should examine the nature and causes of unemployment, the costs of unemployment and how the unemployment rate is measured, including the criticisms associated with the measurement of the unemployment rate. It is also important to understand the concept of the natural rate of unemployment and the factors that affect it. Students should also have an understanding of inflation and how it is measured. In this section, the course should cover the costs of inflation and the main price indices, such as the consumer price index (CPI) and the gross domestic product deflator. Students should learn how these indices are constructed and used to convert nominal values into real values, as well as to convert dollar values in the past to dollar values in the present. It is also important to highlight the differences between the two price indices as a measure of inflation, as well as the problems associated with each measure.
A
1.经济循环
2、Gross Domestic Product(GDP)
国内生产总值,它指在一定时期内(一个季度或一年),一个国家或地区的经济中所生产出的全部最终产品和劳务的价值。有以下几点需要注意,第一,GDP是一个时间段内的概念,谈GDP首先必须指明一个时间跨度,比如从去年的今天到今年的今天,这是整整一年。
第二,GDP是在这一时间段中一个国家或地区,所新生产出的最终产品和劳务的总和,只有最终的才计算在GDP里面,中间产品不算。用公式表示出来就是:GDP=ΣPX。
3、GDP的构成
由上面的经济循环流程图我们看到,经济中一共有四个主要的部分:居民、企业、政府和国际贸易,对应于此,GDP包括这四个经济指标,分别为:消费、投资、政府购买和净出口,用公式表示Y=C+I+G+NX。
4、实际与名义GDP
当价格用规定的之前某一年的价格(称为基期价格)时,称其为实际GDP;当计算GDP中的价格P用现在的市场价格时,所得到的GDP称为名义GDP。
实际与名义的区别在于前者剔除了价格变动的影响,后者则将其包括在内。名义GDP与实际GDP的比值称为GDP平减指数(GDP deflator)。
B
1、通货膨胀
当价格呈现长期、普遍上涨的时候,我们称为通货膨胀;当价格呈现长期、普遍下降的时候,我们称为通货紧缩。注意的地方是,通货膨胀和通货紧缩是描述价格长期的、普遍的变化趋势,并不单单指某一产品。如果仅仅是某一产品,我们只能说它的价格上涨了,却不能说发生通货膨胀了。
2、消费者价格指数(CPI)
我们把产出中和我们日常生活息息相关的产品找出来,对他们的价格进行记录,即固定商品、改变价格,用后一年(或一个月、一个季度)的数值除以前一个数值,得到的比值称为CPI。
与GDP平减指数不同,CPI反应与居民生活密切相关的那些商品的价格变动,而GDP平减指数衡量经济中所有产品的价格变动。
3、通货膨胀的成本
鞋底成本:shoe-leather cost,通货膨胀使人们不愿持有货币,这样,当需要消费的时候,人们就要一次又一次地去银行取钱,如此损失掉的时间与便利称为鞋底成本。当然它不单单只磨坏鞋底所遭受的损失,更重要的是表示通货膨胀使人们损失掉了时间与便利。
菜单成本:menu cost,这个词源自餐馆印刷新菜单的成本,它包括决定新价格的成本、印刷新清单和目录的成本、把这些新价格表和目录送给中间商和顾客的成本、为新价格做广告的成本,甚至包括处理顾客对价格变动恼怒的成本。
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